ANIMAL HEALTH

Tuesday, February 19, 2008

Table of Contents

Introduction
Ovine foot rot was first reported in 1869. It is an infectious, contagious disease of sheep that causes severe lameness and economic loss from decreased flock production. In a Virginia survey, approximately 21 percent of the producers considered foot rot to be a serious health problem in their flocks. With current understanding of the disease, and aided by drugs and vaccines, control and elimination of the disease should be the goal of all sheep producers.
Ovine foot rot is caused by an interaction of two anaerobic (without oxygen), Gram (-) bacteria, Bacteroides nodosus (formerly Fusiformis nodosus) and Fusobacterium necrophorum (formerly Sphaerophorus necrophorus). Fusobacterium necrophorum is a normal inhabitant of the ruminant digestive tract and in wet weather may interact with another bacteria, Corynebacterium pyogenes, to produce foot scald, an infection of the skin between the toes. This infection sets up the foot for invasion by Bacteroides nodosus, which, working in conjunction with the Fusobacterium, produces the condition referred to as foot rot. Since Bacteroides can only live in the hoof of an infected animal or in the soil for no more than 10-14 days, it is possible, through careful management procedures, to keep from introducing foot rot into a flock and to successfully control and/or eliminate the disease if the flock is infected. See Figure 1 for a diagram of the predisposing factors for infection.
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Diagnosis
Lameness is usually the major sign of an infected animal, although sheep with an early infection may not exhibit lameness. The area between the toes first becomes moist and reddened. Then the infection invades the sole of the hoof, undermining and causing separation of the horny tissues. The infection causes a characteristic foul odor and may infect one or more feet at the same time. Not all lame sheep have foot rot. Before undertaking an eradication, treatment, or control program, it is best to consult a veterinarian for a positive diagnosis and advice. Other diseases that may be confused with foot rot are foot abscesses, foot scald, laminitis or founder, corns, traumatic injuries, and foreign bodies lodged between the toes.
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Transmission
The bacteria that causes foot rot, Bacteriodes nodosus, is spread from infected sheep to the ground, manure, bedding, etc., where it is then picked up by noninfected sheep. Foot rot is introduced by purchase of an infected animal or by simply using facilities or trucks that have been contaminated by infected sheep. Spread occurs best when temperatures are from 40-70 degrees F and the environment is wet. Since the organism doesn't survive long in the environment (< 2 wks), carriers in the flock will continue to reinfect the flock unless the animal is either culled or the organism is eliminated by proper treatment.
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Prevention
It is always easier and less expensive to prevent foot rot than to treat it after it has become established. To remain disease free, there are five management principles that will help keep foot rot from being introduced into a clean flock.
1. Never buy sheep with foot rot or from a flock infected with foot rot, even if the animal(s) appear unaffected.
2. Avoid buying sheep at sale yards or livestock markets where clean and infected sheep may have been commingled or run through the same area.
3. Avoid using facilities (trails, corrals, dipping areas) where infected sheep may have been in the last two weeks.
4. Never transport sheep in a vehicle that has not been properly cleaned and disinfected.
5. Trim and treat the feet of all new arrivals, then re-examine them periodically during the 30-day isolation period.
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Treatment
The control of ovine foot rot is based on several management practices that decrease predisposing factors, and on the treatment and immunization of infected and susceptible sheep. The best results are obtained when several of the following methods are combined.
1. Foot trimming: This reduces the number of cracks and crevices where bacteria can hide, removes infected hoof, and exposes the organism to air and various medications. All affected tissue should be trimmed away. Many times, this involves removing a large portion of the hoof wall as well as the overgrown portion. This is necessary if the medication and oxygen are to reach the bacteria and kill them. Foot trimming should be done at least one to two times per year as a part of normal management practices, and more often in conjunction with footbaths in the control of foot rot. When trimming feet, it is important to disinfect the trimming instruments (foot shear, hoof parer, or knife) between animals to prevent spreading of the infection. During a severe outbreak, trimming without any other treatment may actually increase the severity of the disease. If there are problems or questions on how much to trim, request the help of a veterinarian.
2. Footbaths/Footsoaks: There are two different types of solutions commonly used in foot baths: zinc sulfate and copper sulfate. For treatment, they should be used 1-2 times per week for several weeks. They may also be used routinely after foot trimming and as a preventative.
1. Zinc sulfate (10% solution = 16 pounds in 20 gallons of water) is perhaps the most effective and least toxic of the two baths. Tag wool should be added to all the solutions to reduce splashing and wastage and to discourage consumption by the animal as it stands in the solution. A surfactant or wetting agent (detergent) can also be added to the baths to increase their penetration into the cracks and crevices of the hoof. Use of zinc sulfate or copper sulfate solutions as a foot soak (30-60 minutes of contact) increases their efficacy in a treatment program. When designing the foot bath area, it is important that length of contact with the solution be kept in mind. Sufficient sized baths/soaks are necessary to handle the flock and allow sufficient contact time with the solution. Besides the footbath design included as Figure 2 some producers may find it easier and more cost-effective to design a concrete-floored pen that will hold a large number of sheep at one time.
2. Copper sulfate (bluestone) solutions (10% solution = 16 pounds in 20 gallons of water) are also useful but are toxic if consumed by the sheep. Hot water helps dissolve it, as does the addition of some vinegar. It is very corrosive so it should not be used in metal foot baths. It also stains the wool.
3. Dry chemicals: Zinc sulfate (dry) can be placed in a box in an area sheep must walk through. This will not treat infected animals, but will help decrease the spread of the disease. Lime, disinfectants, or drying agents may be used around feed or water troughs to reduce moisture and decrease the spread of the disease.
4. Oral therapy: Zinc sulfate at the rate of 1/2 (0.5) gram per day for 21 days may be helpful both in treatment and prevention, especially if the diet is zinc-deficient. High levels of certain antibiotics may also be helpful in some situations but should only be used after consultation with a veterinarian.
5. Injection of antibiotics: Penicillin and streptomycin combinations used either as a one-shot treatment (1 ml/8 pounds) or every day up to ten days has been proven to be effective in treating foot rot. Procaine Penicillin G or long-acting penicillin products at the same dosage may also be effective. Single injections of long-acting tetracycline have also been successful in some cases. Use of any of these should be after consultation with or by a veterinarian and should never be used on animals that are intended for slaughter before an adequate withdrawal time.
6. Topical medications: There are several different medications that can be applied to the hoof immediately after paring that are helpful in controlling foot rot.
1. Zinc sulfate (10%) - 1/4 (0.25) pound in one quart of water.
2. Copper sulfate (10%) in vinegar - 1/4 (0.25) pound in one quart vinegar.
3. Copper sulfate in pine tar - 2 parts CuS04 in one part pine tar.
4. Oxytetracycline solution in alcohol - one 25.69-gram pkg to 1/2 cup water, then add alcohol to bring solution to 2 quarts.
5. Penicillin in alcohol - 5 million units of potassium penicillin G with 10 cc (ml) water, then add to 1 quart alcohol.
7. Vaccination: Vaccines for Bacteroides nodosus are approved for use in the U.S. They may range in effectiveness from 0-100 percent; most users report from 60-80 percent success. The vaccine works not only as a preventative but has been shown to be fairly effective as a treatment. A regimen of two vaccinations given subcutaneously on the neck just behind the ear 4-6 weeks apart is used. Vaccination before the start of the wet season is recommended, followed by a booster each year prior to the wet season if eradication efforts have not been successful. Abscesses are common at the injection site but should not be treated. These will usually break and drain on their own with no ill effects to the sheep. For this reason, vaccination of show animals or animals that may be going to slaughter soon may not be practical. As always, follow label directions carefully. In the eradication protocol, vaccination can be done six weeks prior to the start of the program and the booster can be given when processing is started. This can increase the immunity, and some healing may be taking place by the start of trimming. Some labor savings can be made by doing the first vaccination at the start of the eradication program. Also, there will be savings on vaccine because the clean group will not have to be vaccinated a second time. Discuss this process thoroughly with a veterinarian or an Extension Agent to determine the best approach.
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Eradication
Using combinations of these procedures, foot rot can be eradicated. Eradication is difficult and requires commitment but is well worth the effort. In a comparison of treatments from recent studies (Table 1), it is apparent that eradication is possible using combinations of these treatment programs. It is also apparent from the following studies that no single treatment is effective. It must be a combination of the ones that best fit the facilities, management, and financial limitations of the flock owner/manager.
Table 1. Effectiveness of different treatments for foot rot.
Study One
Treatment % Cure
_________________________________________________________________
Group 1 Soak 38.9%
Group 2 Soak and feed antibiotic 36.3%
Group 3 Vaccinate 36.5%
Group 4 Vaccinate and soak 62.5%
Study Two
Treatment % Cure
_________________________________________________________________
Group 1 Soak and pare 85.5%
Group 2 Footbath and pare 66.5%
Group 3 Vaccinate and pare 94.0%
Group 4 Vaccinate, pare, and bathe 100.0%
(from National Wool Grower and Utah State University)
Figure 3 shows the basics that are necessary. The essentials of the program are the willpower to cull chronically affected sheep and those that do not respond to vaccination, antibiotics, foot trimming, and footsoaks/baths. Also important are a clean pasture or lot (no sheep with foot rot on it for more than 2 weeks minimum) to place clean animals on, and adequate fencing to assure that separation of clean and infected flocks is maintained. Any lame sheep in the clean group should be immediately examined or put in the "dirty" flock to prevent contamination of the clean flock.
Recent research points out that some sheep seem to be more resistant to foot rot than others. Ewe lambs should not be saved from ewes that have a history of repeat occurrences of the disease.
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Summary
Foot rot is a costly disease to the sheep industry. Treatment costs of labor, drugs and equipment, decreased flock productivity, losses from sales of breeding stock, etc., make this disease an economic hardship for producers. But, with current technology, it is possible and practical to eradicate the disease.
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Disclaimer
Commercial products are named in this publication for informational purposes only. Virginia Cooperative Extension does not endorse these products and does not intend discrimination against other products which also may be suitable
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but the life of animal

Draft Zebus in Mumbai, India.
Oxen (singular ox) are large and heavyset breeds of Bos taurus cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, castrated males. Usually an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for plowing, transport, hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines, irrigation by powering pumps, and wagon drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low-impact select-cut logging. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as carting. In the past, teams might have been larger, with some teams exceeding twenty animals when used for logging.
An ox is nothing more than a mature bovine with an "education." The education consists of the animal's learning to respond appropriately to the teamster's (ox driver's) signals. These signals are given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks) and many teamsters were known for their voices and language. In North America, the commands are (1) get up, (2) whoa, (3) back up, (4) gee (turn to the right) and (5) haw (turn to the left). Oxen must be painstakingly trained from a young age. Their teamster must make or buy as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow. A wooden yoke is fastened about the neck of each pair so that the force of draft is distributed across their shoulders. From calves, oxen are chosen with horns since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back up, or slow down (particularly with a wheeled vehicle going downhill). Yoked oxen cannot slow a load like harnessed horses can; the load has to be controlled downhill by other means. The gait of the ox is often important to ox trainers, since the speed the animal walks should roughly match the gait of the ox driver who must work with it.
U.S. ox trainers favored larger breeds for their ability to do more work and for their intelligence. Because they are larger animals, the typical ox is the male of a breed, rather than the smaller female. Females are potentially more useful producing calves and milk.

Riding an ox in Hova, Sweden.
Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses, particularly on obstinate or almost un-movable loads. This is one of the reasons that teams were dragging logs from forests long after horses had taken over most other draught uses in Europe and North America. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed and do not try to jerk the load.
An "ox" is not a unique breed of bovine, nor have any "blue" oxen lived outside the folk tales surrounding Paul Bunyan, the mythical American logger. A possible exception and antecedent to this legend is the Belgian Blue breed which is known primarily for its unusual musculature and at times exhibits unusual White/Blue, Blue Roan, or Blue coloration. The unusual musculature of the breed is believed to be due to a natural mutation of the gene that codes for the protein Myostatin, which is responsible for normal muscle atrophy.
Many oxen are still in use worldwide, especially in developing countries. In the Third World oxen can lead lives of misery, as they are frequently malnourished. Oxen are driven with sticks and goads when they are weak from malnutrition. When there is insufficient food for humans, animal welfare has low priority.
Ox is also used for various cattle products, irrespective of age, sex or training of the beast – for example, ox-blood, ox-liver, ox-kidney, ox-heart, ox-hide etc.
[edit] Cattle in religion, traditions and folklore

Legend of the founding of Durham Cathedral is that monks carrying the body of Saint Cuthbert were led to the location by a milk maid who had lost her dun cow, which was found resting on the spot.
For the mythology and lore connected with the bull, see Bull (mythology).
· The Evangelist St. Luke is depicted as an ox in Christian art.
· In Judaism, as described in Numbers 19:2, the ashes of a sacrificed unblemished red heifer that has never been yoked can be used for ritual purification of people who came into contact with a corpse.
· The ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. See: Ox (Zodiac).
· The constellation Taurus represents a bull.
· An apocryphal story has it that a cow started the Great Chicago Fire by kicking over a kerosene lamp. Michael Ahern, the reporter who created the cow story, admitted in 1893 that he had made it up because he thought it would make colorful copy.
· On February 18, 1930 Elm Farm Ollie became the first cow to fly in an airplane and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane.
· The first known law requiring branding in North America was enacted on February 5, 1644 by Connecticut. It said that all cattle and pigs have to have a registered brand or earmark by May 1, 1644.[17]
· The akabeko (赤べこ, red cow?) is a traditional toy from the Aizu region of Japan that is thought to ward off illness.[18]
· The case of Sherwood v. Walker -- involving a supposedly barren heifer that was actually pregnant -- first enunciated the concept of Mutual mistake as a means of destroying the Meeting of the minds in Contract law.[citation needed]
· The Maasai tribe of East Africa traditionally believe that all cows on earth are the God-given property of the Maasai
[edit] Cattle in Hindu tradition
Main article: Sacred cow

In Hinduism, the cow is a symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, selfless giving and a full Earthly life.
Cows are venerated within the Hindu religion of India. According to Vedic scripture they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother' because of the milk they provide; "The cow is my mother. The bull is my sire."[19] They appear in numerous stories from the Puranas and Vedas, for example the deity Krishna is brought up in a family of cowherders, and given the name Govinda (protector of the cows). Also Shiva is traditionally said to ride on the back of a bull named Nandi. Bulls in particular are seen as a symbolic emblem of selfless duty and religion. In ancient rural India every household had a few cows which provided a constant supply of milk and a few bulls that helped as draft animals. Many Hindus feel that at least it was economically wise to keep cattle for their milk rather than consume their flesh for one single meal.
Gandhi explains his feelings about cow protection as follows:
"The cow to me means the entire sub-human world, extending man's sympathies beyond his own species. Man through the cow is enjoined to realize his identity with all that lives. Why the ancient rishis selected the cow for apotheosis is obvious to me. The cow in India was the best comparison; she was the giver of plenty. Not only did she give milk, but she also made agriculture possible. The cow is a poem of pity; one reads pity in the gentle animal. She is the second mother to millions of mankind. Protection of the cow means protection of the whole dumb creation of God. The appeal of the lower order of creation is all the more forceful because it is speechless."
[edit] In heraldry
Cattle are represented in heraldry by the bull.
Arms of Turin, Italy Arms of Kaunas, Lithuania Arms of Bielsk Podlaski, Poland Arms of Turek, Poland
[edit] Present status

Simmental cattle resting on a Swiss pasture
The world cattle population is estimated to be about 1.3 billion head. India is the nation with the largest number of cattle, about 400 million, followed by Brazil and China, with about 150 million each, and the United States, with about 100 million. Africa has about 200 million head of cattle, many of which are herded in traditional ways and serve largely as tokens of their owners' wealth. Europe has about 130 million head of cattle (CT 2006, SC 2006).
Cattle today are the basis of a many billion dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and represented only 23 percent of world beef production. (Clay 2004). The production of milk, which is also made into cheese, butter, yogurt, and other dairy products, is comparable in size to beef production and provides an important part of the food supply for much of the world's people. Cattle hides, used for leather to make shoes and clothing, are another important product. In India and other poorer nations, cattle are also important as draft animals as they have been for thousands of years.
[edit] Environmental impact
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Cattle - especially when kept on enormous feedlots such as this one - have been named as a contributing factor in the rise in greenhouse gas emissions.
A 400-page United Nations report from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) states that cattle are "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases."[20]Cattle are blamed for a host of other environmental crimes, from acid rain to the introduction of alien species, from producing deserts to creating dead zones in the oceans, from poisoning rivers and drinking water to destroying coral reefs.
The report, entitled Livestock's Long Shadow, also surveys the damage done by sheep, chickens, pigs and goats. But in almost every case, the world's 1.5 billion cattle are cited as being most to blame. The report concludes that, unless changes are made, the massive damage reckoned to be due to livestock may more than double by 2050, as demand for meat increases. One of the cited changes suggests that intensification of the livestock industry may be necessary, since intensification leads to fewer cattle for a given level of production.[21]
Some of the microbes respire in the gut by an anaerobic process known as methanogenesis (producing the gas methane). Cattle emit a large amount of methane, 95% of it through eructation or burping, not flatulence.[22] As the carbon in the methane comes from the digestion of vegetation produced by photosynthesis, its release into the air by this process would normally be considered harmless, because there is no net increase in carbon in the atmosphere — it's removed as carbon dioxide from the air by photosynthesis and returned to it as methane. But methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, having a warming effect 23 times greater,[23] and so the methane gas produced by livestock is a significant contributor to the increase in greenhouse gases.[24][opinion needs balancing] Research is underway on methods of reducing this source of methane, by the use of dietary supplements, or treatments to reduce the proportion of methanogenetic microbes, perhaps by vaccination.[25] [26]
Alternative views on this issue note that the problem may not be cattle per se, but rather the concentration of cattle into feedlots, where they are fed a concentrated high-corn diet which produces rapid weight gain, but has side effects which include increased acidity in the digestive system. Manure and other byproducts of concentrated agriculture also have environmental consequences

brahmam baby

[edit] Biology
Cattle have one stomach, with four compartments. They are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, the rumen being the largest compartment. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum, the smallest compartment, and this is where hardware disease occurs. The reticulum is known as the "Honeycomb." The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "Many Plies." The abomasum is most like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "True Stomach".

Dairy farming and the milking of cattle - once performed largely by hand, but now usually replaced by machine - exploits the cow's unique ruminant biology.
Cattle are ruminants, meaning that they have a digestive system that allows them to utilize otherwise indigestible foods by repeatedly regurgitating and rechewing them as "cud." The cud is then reswallowed and further digested by specialized microorganisms that live in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for breaking down cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids (VFAs) that cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes that live inside of the rumen are also able to synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen older generations die and their carcasses continue on through the digestive tract. Theses carcasses are then partially digested by the cattle, allowing it to gain a high quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other vegetation.
The gestation period for a cow is nine months. A newborn calf weighs roughly 25 to 45 kg (55 to 100 lb). Very large steers can weigh as much as 1,800 kg (4,000 pounds), although 600 to 900 kg (1,300 to 1,900 lb) is more usual for adults. Cattle usually live up to about 15 years (occasionally as much as 25 years).
A common misconception about cattle (particularly bulls) is that they are enraged by the color red (something provocative is often said to be "like a red rag to a bull"). This is incorrect, as cattle are red-green colour-blind.[9][10][11] The myth arose from the use of red capes in the sport of bullfighting; in fact, two different capes are used. The capote is a large, flowing cape that is magenta and yellow. The more famous muleta is the smaller, red cape, used exclusively for the final, fatal segment of the fight. It is not the color of the cape that angers the bull, but rather the movement of the fabric that irritates the bull and incites it to charge.[12]
Although cattle cannot distinguish red from green, they do have two kinds of colour receptors in their retinas (cone cells) and so are theoretically able to distinguish some colours, probably in a similar way to other red-green colour-blind or dichromatic mammals (such as dogs, cats, horses and up to ten percent of male humans).[13][14]
[edit] Uses of cattle

Texas Longhorns are an iconic U.S. breed
Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, domesticated since at least the early Neolithic. They are raised for meat (beef cattle), milk (dairy cattle), and hides. They are also used as draft animals and in certain sports. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft.
In Portugal, Spain, Southern France and some Latin American countries, bulls are used in the sport of bullfighting while a similar sport, Jallikattu, is seen in South India; in many other countries this is illegal. Other sports such as bull riding are seen as part of a rodeo, especially in North America. Bull-leaping, a central ritual in Bronze Age Minoan culture (see Bull (mythology)), still exists in south-western France.
The outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) have limited some traditional uses of cattle for food, for example the eating of brains or spinal cords.
In modern times, cattle are also entered into agricultural competitions. These competitions can involve live cattle or carcasses.
[edit] Cattle husbandry
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A cow being inspected for ticks; cattle are often restrained or confined in Cattle crushes when given medical attention.
Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland. Raising cattle in this manner allows the productive use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily feeding, cleaning and milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging, dehorning, loading, medical operations, vaccinations and hoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. There are also some cultural differences in working with cattle- the cattle husbandry of Fulani men rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe cattle are controlled primarily by physical means like fences.[15]
Breeders can utilize cattle husbandry to reduce M. bovis infection susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.[16] Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, leather and they are sometimes used simply to maintain grassland for wildlife- for example, in Epping Forest, England. They are often used in some of the most wild places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and semi desert. Modern cows are more commercial than older breeds and, having become more specialized, are less versatile. For this reason many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, like the dairy breed of cattle Jersey

animal hdv

Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows (though technically cow refers only to female bovines), are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. They are raised as livestock for meat (called beefand veal), dairy products(milk, leather and as draught animals (pulling carts, plowsand the like). In some countries, such as India they are honored in religious ceremonies and revered. It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion cattle in the world today.[1]

[edit] Species of cattle
Cattle were originally identified by Carolus Linnaeus as three separate species. These were Bos taurus, the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; Bos indicus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and European cattle. More recently[verification needed) these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, with Bos primigenius taurus, Bos primigenius indicus and Bos primigenius primigenius as the subspecies.
Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between European cattle and zebu but also with yaks(called a dzo), banteng gaur, and bison ("cattalo"), a cross-genera hybrid. For example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only humpless "Bos taurus-type" cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of European cattle, zebu and yak.[2] Cattle cannot successfully be bred with water buffaloor African buffao
The aurochs was originally spread throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, their range was restricted to Europe, and the last animals were killed by poachers in Masovia Poland, in 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by careful crossing of domesticated cattle breeds, creating the Heck cattle breed. (See aurochsand zebu articles for more information.)
[edit] Terminology
[edit] Word origin
Cattle did not originate as a name for bovine animals. It derives from the Latin caput, head, and originally meant movable property, especially livestock of any kind.[3] The word is closely related to "chattel" (a unit of personal property) and "capital" in the economic sense.[4][5]
Older English sources like King James Version of the Bible refer to livestock in general as cattle (as opposed to the word deer which then was used for wild animals). Additionally other species of the genus Bos are sometimes called wild cattle. Today, the modern meaning of "cattle", without any other qualifier, is usually restricted to domesticated bovines.
[edit] Types of cattle

A Hereford bull
An intact adult male is called a "bull." An adult female who has had more than one or two calves (depending on regional usage) is called a "cow." The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually "bovine." Young cattle are called calves until they are weaned, then weaners until they are a year old in some areas, in other areas, particularly with beef cattle, they may be known as feeder-calves or simply feeders. After that, they are referred to as "yearlings" if between one and two years of age, or by gender: A young female before she has had a calf of her own is called a "heifer" [6][7] (pronounced /ˈhɛfər/, "heffer"). A young female that has had only one calf is occasionally called a "first-calf heifer." An older (usually over 500 kg) castrated male is called a "bullock" in the British Isles and Australasia, though the term refers to a young bull in North America. The term "steer" is generally used to denote a young castrated male, unless kept for draft purposes, in which case it is called an "ox" (plural "oxen". In North America, draft cattle are called "working steers" until they are 4 years of age, at which time the term "oxen" applies). In the USA, though the term "steer" is used as the generic term for a castrated male, in the extremely uncommon situation where an animal is castrated as an adult, the term "stag" is technically correct, though rarely used.[8] Many other large animal species, including whales, hippopotamuses, camels, elk, and elephants, use the terms "bull", "cow" and "calf" to denote males, females, and young within the species.
[edit] Dilemma about singular terminology
Cattle is both a plural and a mass noun, but there is no singular equivalent: it is a plurale tantum Thus one may refer to "three cattle" or "some cattle", but not "one cattle". There is no universally used singular equivalent in modern English to "cattle", other than the gender and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer, heifer, and so on.
Strictly speaking, the singular noun for the domestic bovine was "ox": a bull is a male ox and a cow is a female ox.[citation needed However, "ox" today is rarely used in this general sense. An ox today generally denotes a draught beast, most commonly a castrated male (but is not to be confused with the unrelated wild musk ox.

A Brahmancalf
"Cow" has been in general use as a singular for the collective "cattle" in spite of the objections of those who point out that it is a female-specific term, rendering phrases such as "that cow is a bull" absurd. However, it is easy to use when a singular is needed and the gender is not known, as in "There is a cow in the road". Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences.
Colloquially, more general non-specific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Australian, New Zealand and British farmers use the term "beast" or "cattle beast". "Bovine" is also used in Britain. The term "critter" is common in the western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young cattle. In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter", though that term is becoming archaic.
[edit] Other terminology
Obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (this use survives in "neatsfoot ol", extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing" (young animal fit for slaughter).
Cattle raised for human consumption are called "beef cattle". Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the term "beef" (plural "beeves") is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either gender. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called "dairy cos" or "milking cows" (formerly "milch cows" – "milch" was pronounced as "milk"). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are generally sold for veal, and may be referred to as veal calves. In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a "house cow".
An onomatopoeia imitating one of the commonest sounds made by cattle is "moo", and this sound is also called lowing. There are a number of other sounds made by cattle, including calves bawling and bulls bellowing (a high-pitched yodeling call). The bullroarer makes a sound similar to a territorial call made by bulls.
[edit] Biology
Cattle have one stomach, with four compartments. They are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, the rumen being the largest compartment. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum, the smallest compartment, and this is where hardware disease occurs. The reticulum is known as the "Honeycomb." The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "Many Plies." The abomasum is most like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "True Stomach

One of the more recent applications

One of the more recent applications of PCR technology is for improving national security. After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, the fear of further attacks involving biological weapons increased. Rapid identification of terrorists and specific biological agents using PCR-based methods represents a plausible approach to gathering critical information about these individuals and weapons.
With the identification, characterization, and genetic engineering of viruses, bacteria, and fungi, the likelihood of strategic, harmful applications involving these organisms is growing. Biological species that represent a serious health risk to humans have been used as weapons for years. These risks can include the U.S. agricultural economy, food supplies, and the environment. To combat bioterrorism, President George W. Bush in February 2002 called for a budget increase to $5.9 billion for Homeland Security directed towards protecting against bioterrorist attacks. The creation of a national database that catalogs pathogens and individuals that are authorized to study these pathogens is also of ongoing concern. A benefit of these databases would be to identify the genetically engineered pathogens used as biological weapons (allowing quick access to specific medical treatment protocols) and to potentially link pathogens to the bioterrorists that developed them.
PCR technology can also be employed to identify the specific disease-causing microorganism. The U.S. Postal Service is working in conjunction with the biotech industry on initiatives to develop intelligent mail. Using PCR to identify anthrax, for example, is one way to quickly ascertain the nature of the contaminated mail or screen high-risk mail. This technology was the government's primary weapon against mail deemed unsuitable for circulation since irradiation provided a limited, unsubstantial solution and often damaged the mail. This high-tech strategy for mail surveillance can be particularly useful by sucking out air samples from the mail and testing for specific molecular signatures using PCR to detect a possible biological contaminant.
Defending against bioterrorism after the September 11 attacks includes developing advances in biological detection instrumentation. In conjunction with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and its sister laboratory at Los Alamos are currently developing DNA profiles of the most threatening pathogens such as anthrax and the plague using PCR technology. Biodetection instrumentation for genetic profiling has led to the miniaturization and subsequently the portability of DNA analytical devices, particularly for PCR. Forensic scientists and criminologists also benefit from mobile PCR machines by bringing the science to the scene of the crime leading to more rapid crime-solving capabilities.
Security at the 2002 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City was led by The Biological Aerosol Sentry and Information System (BASIS). Miniaturized PCR machines called Smart Cyclers developed by a company called Cepheid were used at the field laboratory operation set up by BASIS. The purpose was to prepare for a bioterrorism threat by having appropriate and rapid biological sample identification to allow for accurate bioterrorist assessment and validation so that the proper responses could be executed.
Recent concerns over genetic engineering of agricultural food products and the potential risks to food safety have prompted studies investigating the molecular signatures of crops using PCR. A study in the scientific journal Nature revealed that genetically manipulated DNA from industrial produced maize had been introduced into corn fields in Oaxaca, Mexico. Although the ramifications to health and food safety are unknown and most likely benign, surveillance of crops using PCR is a formidable approach in the implementation of security measures to help protect against harmful pathogenic contaminations that can threaten food safety. As the cost and use of PCR are eased and as the collection of databases with recognizable DNA profiles of various microorganisms is increased, the utility of this technology in human and food safety will be greatly improved.
Motility test medium demonstrates if cells can swim in a semisolid medium. A semisolid medium such as O.75% agar is inoculated with the bacteria in a straight-line stab with a needle. After incubation, if turbidity (cloudiness) due to bacterial growth can be observed away from the line of the stab, it is evidence that the bacteria were able to swim through the medium.

Figure 8. Bacterial cultures grown in motility test medium. The tube on left is a non motile organism; the tube on right is a motile organism. Motility test medium is a semi-soft medium that is inoculated with a straight needle. If the bacteria are motile, they will swim away from the line of inoculation in order to find nutrients, causing turbidity or cloudiness throughout the medium. If they are non motile, they will only grow along the line of inoculation.

OTHER SEROLOGICAL TESTS

OTHER SEROLOGICAL TESTS Other serological tests for laboratory diagnosis of syphilis which utilize specific T. pallidum antigens include the following. The Treponema pallidum immobilization (TPI) test has proved to be an important technique in the diagnosis of syphilis. Live, virulent T.pallidum (Nichols strain) and complement are placed in a test tube containing patient’s serum. The tube is then incubated at 34ºC for 18 hours. If the patient has syphilis, his serum will contain antibodies which immobilize the spirochetes. Serum from a nonsyphilitic patient does not contain immobilizing antibodies. The percent of motile spirochetes used in the test is determined by dark-field microscope examination. This test requires painstaking attention to detail and experience with the procedure and is useful for diagnosis of syphilis in patients who may give false positive reactions by other methods. The Treponema pallidum immune adherence (TPIA) test is based on the fact that when T.pallidum is placed in a test tube with complement, patient’s serum containing syphilitic antibodies, and red blood cells, the organisms adhere to the blood cells. In the presence of normal nonsyphilitic serum the treponema do not adhere to them. If possible, red blood cells from the patient are used, but if they cannot be obtained, group O cells may be substituted. Tubes containing the mixture are centrifuged gently but sufficiently to sediment the blood cells. The supernatant fluid is examined under the dark-field microscope. If spirochetes are found, adherence has not taken place and the test is negative. FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE The fluorescent-antibody technique for rapid identification of microorganism is an indirect immunochemical technique for visualization of a reaction which takes place when a known antibody, tagged with a flourochrome dye, combines with its homologous antigen. If a mixed culture or specimen is placed on a slide, mixed with serum containing known fluorescent antibody, and viewed by ordinary dark-field microscopy, all organisms present will appear bright on a dark background. However, if the same preparation is viewed with fluorescence microscopy using an appropriate ultraviolet-light source, only the antigen (organisms) which has been “cooted” with antibody will be visible. Thus, only a few organisms need be present to be observed, and laboratory confirmation of clinical diagnosis of many infectious diseases can be made quickly and accurately. The method is potentially useful for the identification of any microorganism to which antibodies can be produces. With certain modifications the basic technique is used for the rapid serological diagnosis of syphilis.
The Polymerase Chain Reaction, or PCR, refers to a widely used technique in molecular biology that has become quintessential in many aspects of DNA analysis with broad-based applications in medicine and forensic investigations. PCR is the amplification of specific sequences of genomic DNA, the genetic material found in virtually all living cells. This technology was conceived by the Californian geneticist Kary B. Mullis (1944), who won a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1993 for developing PCR. It was

A scientist at the U.S. Army's biodefense laboratory at Ft. Detrick, Maryland, performs PCR analysis on anthrax samples.
AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS
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first applied to basic science research and later revolutionized modern medicine by improving the diagnosis of human diseases through enhanced genetic testing and medical research. More recently, PCR technology has significantly contributed to both domestic and international forensic sciences as well as applications aimed at improving United States homeland security.
PCR requires specialized equipment that is customized to fluctuate between specifically timed temperature variations. Before PCR is performed, DNA must be isolated from peripheral blood, hair follicles, cheek cells, or tissue samples. Isolated DNA is double stranded, meaning that there are two sequences of letters or nucleotide bases (A or adenine, G or guanine, C or cytosine, and T or thymine). The double stranded DNA is held together by complementary base pairings in that A binds to T, C binds to G and vice versa. Therefore, knowing of the sequence of one strand will reveal the sequence of the complementary strand. Amplification is necessary because there are 3.9 billion bases, and although there is a lot of total DNA, there is not enough to properly analyze specific gene or gene segments. Amplification, therefore, makes it possible to obtain ample quantities of specific sequences of DNA to perform a variety of analyses.
PCR requires "primers," or two sequences about 20–25 bases long with one binding to the beginning sequence of interest and the other binding at the end of the same sequence. In order to get the primers to bind to the targeted sequences in the genome, the PCR machines will undergo several cycles at different temperatures. In the first cycle, the DNA is heated to break apart the two strands. The temperature is then reduced so that the primers can bind or anneal to their complementary base sequence in the DNA. Finally, an enzyme called Taq polymerase adds letters from a pool of bases or letters included in the reaction to the position next to the last base of each the primer. Synthesis of one strand of DNA is in the opposite direction of the other. The result is a double stranded DNA sequence. These cycles are repeated several times and amplification of first the DNA sequence in the genome is copied and this copied DNA is re-copied in the next cycle resulting in exponential growth of the specific sequence. Thirty cycles amplified the target DNA between 100,000- to 10,000,000-fold. However, only DNA sequences of 100 to 2000 bases long are ideally suitable for PCR amplification. In this way, a gene of interest or part of the gene can be amplified to quantities that make genetic studies possible.
PCR, therefore, is rapid, inexpensive, and a relatively easy way of producing a large number of copies of a specific DNA sequence. This is particularly advantageous when there is very little or poor quality DNA. RNA, which is converted from DNA into protein, can also be amplified in the same manner as DNA, however, DNA is much more stable and is easier to isolate. Since each individual inherits sequences of DNA that are different from other individuals, the importance of DNA and PCR technology in identifying an individual is exemplified in the courtroom. DNA analysis can be a powerful tool in criminal investigations, especially those classified as homicides, theft, and sexual assault. Physical evidence left at the scene of any crime can be helpful in reconstructing the sequence of events and potentially reveal the criminal. It can also reveal non-paternity if the pattern of DNA in the offspring does not match the pattern of DNA in the assumed father.
Forensic science relies heavily on PCR technology to amplify specific sequences of DNA that will establish a connection between a specific suspect and a crime scene. Amplification of DNA is critical in cases where the source of DNA is minimal or the integrity is compromised. DNA evidence is also a powerful tool that has been used to ultimately prove the innocence of previously convicted individuals. Additionally, DNA can reveal many characteristics that can help forensic scientists and law enforcement officers identify the perpetrator. This is becoming increasingly applicable to national security as well as international intelligence. PCR has revolutionized law enforcement in this way and will continue to enhance the justice system in the future. For example, using complex algorithms and known sequences of DNA, it is possible to analyze the genetic DNA pattern from an unknown person to predict eye color, gender, and even ethnicity.
In 1985 American geneticist Alec Jeffereys, Ph.D. used PCR technology to amplify regions in the human genome that were highly variable. These DNA fragments were comprised of specific sequences that were repeated. The repeat number was found to be highly variable from individual to individual with the exception of identical twins. These DNA fragments could be amplified using PCR and then studied for variable fragment lengths of repeats. This technology was collectively referred as genetic fingerprinting and became widely used. In a highly publicized case called the Narborough Murder Enquiry, criminal investigators were able to identify the perpetrator using DNA fingerprinting.